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Tan, W.-H.; Tsai, C.-G.; Lin, C.; Lin, Y. K. (2014-06-05). "Urban canyon effect: storm drains enhance call characteristics of the Mientien tree frog". Journal of Zoology. 294 (2): 77–84. doi: 10.1111/jzo.12154. ISSN 0952-8369. Foster, J. (2007). "Anura (Frogs)". Jurassic west: the dinosaurs of the Morrison Formation and their world. Indiana University Press. pp.135–136. ISBN 978-0-253-34870-8. Bailly, Anatole (1981). Abrégé du dictionnaire grec français. Paris: Hachette. ISBN 978-2010035289. OCLC 461974285. Lips, K; Solís, F.; Ibáñez, R.; Jaramillo, C.; Fuenmayor, Q. (2010). " Atelopus zeteki". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2010 . Retrieved 2012-08-02.

Yuan Zhigang, Zhao Ermi, Shi Haitao, Diesmos, A.; Alcala, A.; Brown, R.; Afuang, L.; Gee, G.; Sukumaran, J.; Yaakob, N.; Leong Tzi Ming, Yodchaiy Chuaynkern, Kumthorn Thirakhupt, Das, I.; Iskandar, D.; Mumpuni.; Robert Inger (2004). " Fejervarya cancrivora". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2004: e.T58269A11759436. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.T58269A11759436.en . Retrieved 19 November 2021. {{ cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( link) Unlike John England (N&Q, 4 May) I interpreted the original query as asking what speed (30mph or 60mph) is the most fuel efficient. There is a trade-off: engine efficiency increases with road speed, but higher speeds incur increased air resistance (as the square of the speed). Consequently, fuel economy is maximised somewhere between 30mph and 60mph, depending on the capacity of the vehicle – typically 40mph for a 1600cc diesel car and 60mph for a 1300cc petrol car. Hua, J. & Pierce, B.A. (2013) Lethal and sublethal effects of salinity on three common Texas amphibians. Copeia, 2013 (3): 562-566. We are hoping they will live to a great age and enjoy the day each time it comes around; usually conveyed with sincerity, but with irony by anyone counting on a swift inheritance.

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See also: Sexual selection in frogs A male Dendropsophus microcephalus displaying its vocal sac during its call Advertisement call of male Atelopus franciscus a b Minott, Kevin (2010-05-15). "How frogs jump". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 2013-11-04 . Retrieved 2012-06-10. Joel, Lucas (2020-04-23). "Fossil Shows Cold-Blooded Frogs Lived on Warm Antarctica". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 2020-04-23 . Retrieved 2020-05-13. AmphibiaWeb (2018) http://amphibiaweb.org. University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA. Accessed 11 Sep 2018. a b Howard, Ian P.; Rogers, Brian J. (1995). Binocular Vision and Stereopsis. Oxford University Press. p.651. ISBN 978-0195084764.

Meanwhile, the word toad, first attested as Old English tādige, is unique to English and is likewise of uncertain etymology. [14] It is the basis for the word tadpole, first attested as Middle English taddepol, apparently meaning 'toad-head'. [15] Taxonomy Nash, Pat (February 2005). "The RRRRRRRRiveting Life of Tree Frogs". Archived from the original on 2012-03-09 . Retrieved 2012-08-04. Although care of offspring is poorly understood in frogs, up to an estimated 20% of amphibian species may care for their young in some way. [170] The evolution of parental care in frogs is driven primarily by the size of the water body in which they breed. Those that breed in smaller water bodies tend to have greater and more complex parental care behaviour. [171] Because predation of eggs and larvae is high in large water bodies, some frog species started to lay their eggs on land. Once this happened, the desiccating terrestrial environment demands that one or both parents keep them moist to ensure their survival. [172] The subsequent need to transport hatched tadpoles to a water body required an even more intense form of parental care. [171] Marjanović, D.; Laurin, M. (2009). "The origin(s) of modern amphibians: a commentary" (PDF). Evolutionary Biology. 36 (3): 336–338. doi: 10.1007/s11692-009-9065-8. S2CID 12023942.

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anuran, n. and adj.". Oxford English Dictionary (Onlineed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) Shubin, N. H.; Jenkins, F. A. Jr (1995). "An Early Jurassic jumping frog". Nature. 377 (6544): 49–52. Bibcode: 1995Natur.377...49S. doi: 10.1038/377049a0. S2CID 4308225.

Duellman, W. E. and L. Trueb (1986). Biology of Amphibians. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. Some species have bony plates embedded in their skin, a trait that appears to have evolved independently several times. [63] In certain other species, the skin at the top of the head is compacted and the connective tissue of the dermis is co-ossified with the bones of the skull ( exostosis). [64] [65] In South America, cane toads can be almost fifteen centimetres long. Sometimes they're even called giant toads. They have dry bumpy skin with ridges over their eyes. Cane toads are good at finding food with their sense of smell. They eat all sorts of things - plants, small creatures, even birds. They're poisonous, so most animals can't eat them. The origins and evolutionary relationships between the three main groups of amphibians are hotly debated. A molecular phylogeny based on rDNA analysis dating from 2005 suggests that salamanders and caecilians are more closely related to each other than they are to frogs and the divergence of the three groups took place in the Paleozoic or early Mesozoic before the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea and soon after their divergence from the lobe-finned fishes. This would help account for the relative scarcity of amphibian fossils from the period before the groups split. [24] Another molecular phylogenetic analysis conducted about the same time concluded that lissamphibians first appeared about 330 million years ago and that the temnospondyl-origin hypothesis is more credible than other theories. The neobatrachians seemed to have originated in Africa/India, the salamanders in East Asia and the caecilians in tropical Pangaea. [25] Other researchers, while agreeing with the main thrust of this study, questioned the choice of calibration points used to synchronise the data. They proposed that the date of lissamphibian diversification should be placed in the Permian, rather less than 300 million years ago, a date in better agreement with the palaeontological data. [26] A further study in 2011 using both extinct and living taxa sampled for morphological, as well as molecular data, came to the conclusion that Lissamphibia is monophyletic and that it should be nested within Lepospondyli rather than within Temnospondyli. The study postulated that Lissamphibia originated no earlier than the late Carboniferous, some 290 to 305 million years ago. The split between Anura and Caudata was estimated as taking place 292 million years ago, rather later than most molecular studies suggest, with the caecilians splitting off 239 million years ago. [27] A fossilized frog from the Czech Republic, possibly Palaeobatrachus gigas Frogs that live in or visit water have adaptations that improve their swimming abilities. The hind limbs are heavily muscled and strong. The webbing between the toes of the hind feet increases the area of the foot and helps propel the frog powerfully through the water. Members of the family Pipidae are wholly aquatic and show the most marked specialization. They have inflexible vertebral columns, flattened, streamlined bodies, lateral line systems, and powerful hind limbs with large webbed feet. [113] Tadpoles mostly have large tail fins which provide thrust when the tail is moved from side to side. [114] Burrowinga b Duellman, W. E.; Zug, G. R. "Anura: From tadpole to adult". Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 2012-07-13. Lee, Deborah (2010-04-23). " Telmatobius culeus". AmphibiaWeb. University of California, Berkeley . Retrieved 2012-07-09. G. Carnevalel & T.W. Pietsch. 2009. An Eocene frogfish from Monte Bolca, Italy: The earliest known skeletal record for the family a b Badger, David; Netherton, John (1995). Frogs. Airlife Publishing. p.38. ISBN 978-1-85310-740-5. Nauwelaerts, S.; Schollier, J.; Aerts, P. (2004). "A functional analysis of how frogs jump out of water". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 83 (3): 413–420. doi: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2004.00403.x.

A car burns fuel slower at 30mph than at 60mph, but on a given journey the engine is running for twice as long. So which is cheaper? Long, David R. (1989). "Energetics and reproduction in female Scaphiopus multiplicatus from Western Texas". Journal of Herpetology. 23 (2): 176–179. doi: 10.2307/1564026. JSTOR 1564026. Because frog toxins are extraordinarily diverse, they have raised the interest of biochemists as a "natural pharmacy". The alkaloid epibatidine, a painkiller 200 times more potent than morphine, is made by some species of poison dart frogs. Other chemicals isolated from the skins of frogs may offer resistance to HIV infection. [227] Dart poisons are under active investigation for their potential as therapeutic drugs. [228]Marjanović, David; Laurin, Michel (2007). "Fossils, molecules, divergence times, and the origin of lissamphibians". Systematic Biology. 56 (3): 369–388. doi: 10.1080/10635150701397635. PMID 17520502. Morphology and physiology A bullfrog skeleton, showing elongated limb bones and extra joints. Red marks indicate bones which have been substantially elongated in frogs and joints which have become mobile. Blue indicates joints and bones which have not been modified or only somewhat elongated. a b c d e f g Stebbins, Robert C.; Cohen, Nathan W. (1995). A Natural History of Amphibians. Princeton University Press. pp.154–162. ISBN 978-0-691-03281-8. Jared, C.; Antoniazzi, M. M.; Navas, C. A.; Katchburian, E.; Freymüller, E.; Tambourgi, D. V.; Rodrigues, M. T. (2005). "Head co-ossification, phragmosis and defence in the casque-headed tree frog Corythomantis greeningi". Journal of Zoology. 265 (1): 1–8. doi: 10.1017/S0952836904005953. S2CID 59449901. Ahn, A. N.; Furrow, E.; Biewener, A. A. (2004). "Walking and running in the red-legged running frog, Kassina maculata". Journal of Experimental Biology. 207 (Pt 3): 399–410. doi: 10.1242/jeb.00761. PMID 14691087.