Komodo Reptile Scales

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Rieppel O, de Braga M (1996). "Turtles as diapsid reptiles" (PDF). Nature. 384 (6608): 453–455. Bibcode: 1996Natur.384..453R. doi: 10.1038/384453a0. S2CID 4264378. Hartline, PH (1971). "Physiological basis for detection of sound and vibration in snakes". The Journal of Experimental Biology. 54 (2): 349–71. doi: 10.1242/jeb.54.2.349. PMID 5553415. Directorate General Armed Forces Medical Services, India. Memorandum No 102: Snakebite. Undated.pdf available [ online]. Accessed on 21 Feb 2010. Regular shedding – Reptiles shed their skin continuously throughout their lifetimes. Shedding tends to be the most frequent during the adolescent phase, because the skin doesn’t actually grow in proportion with the body. The frequency of the shedding tends to decrease once the reptile reaches adulthood. At that point it’s mostly shed to maintain good health.

In the 18th century, the reptiles were, from the outset of classification, grouped with the amphibians. Linnaeus, working from species-poor Sweden, where the common adder and grass snake are often found hunting in water, included all reptiles and amphibians in class "III – Amphibia" in his Systema Naturæ. [7] In the late 19th century, a number of definitions of Reptilia were offered. The traits listed by Lydekker in 1896, for example, include a single occipital condyle, a jaw joint formed by the quadrate and articular bones, and certain characteristics of the vertebrae. [14] The animals singled out by these formulations, the amniotes other than the mammals and the birds, are still those considered reptiles today. [15] The first reptiles had an anapsid type of skull roof, as seen in the Permian genus Captorhinus a b Laurin, M.; Reisz, R.R. (1995). "A reevaluation of early amniote phylogeny" (PDF). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 113 (2): 165–223. doi: 10.1111/j.1096-3642.1995.tb00932.x.

REFERENCES AND NOTES

As mentioned previously, the most dominant form of reptile reproduction is oviparous or egg-laying reproduction, but there are a few notable exceptions. Around 20% of all lizards and snakes, including the boas, do produce live young instead of eggs. These viviparous reptiles have a non-mammalian placenta or some other means through which nutrients are transferred from the mother to the offspring and vice versa for the waste. The main advantage of viviparous birth is that it protects the eggs from predators in a hostile environment. But this method of birth has a tradeoff, since it’s taxing on the mother. Modesto, Sean; Reisz, Robert; Scott, Diane (2011). A neodiapsid reptile from the Lower Permian of Oklahoma. 71st Annual Meeting. Program and Abstracts. Society of Vertebrate Paleontology. p.160.

For example, Iguanahearts, like the majority of the squamateshearts, are composed of three chambers with two aorta and one ventricle, cardiac involuntary muscles. [68] The main structures of the heart are the sinus venosus, the pacemaker, the left atrium, the right atrium, the atrioventricular valve, the cavum venosum, cavum arteriosum, the cavum pulmonale, the muscular ridge, the ventricular ridge, pulmonary veins, and paired aortic arches. [69] Capshaw, Grace; Willis, Katie L.; Han, Dawei; Bierman, Hilary S. (2020). "Reptile sound production and perception". In Rosenfeld, Cheryl S.; Hoffmann, Frauke (eds.). Neuroendocrine Regulation of Animal Vocalization. Academic Press. pp.101–118. ISBN 978-0128151600. AZ Animals is a growing team of animals experts, researchers, farmers, conservationists, writers, editors, and -- of course -- pet owners who have come together to help you better understand the animal kingdom and how we interact. Reptiles: Different Types, Definition, Photos, and More FAQs (Frequently Asked Questions) Franklin-Brown, Mary (2012). Reading the World: Encyclopedic writing in the scholastic age. Chicago, IL / London, UK: The University of Chicago Press. pp.223, 377. ISBN 9780226260709. Alibardi, Lorenzo (2005). "Differentiation of snake epidermis, with emphasis on the shedding layer". Journal of Morphology. 264 (2): 178–90. doi: 10.1002/jmor.10326. PMID 15761820. S2CID 7506873.

YOUNG, BRUCE A. (1997). "A Review of Sound Production and Hearing in Snakes, with a Discussion of Intraspecific Acoustic Communication in Snakes". Journal of the Pennsylvania Academy of Science. 71 (1): 39–46. ISSN 1044-6753. JSTOR 44149431. Lyson, Tyler R.; Schachner, Emma R.; Botha-Brink, Jennifer; Scheyer, Torsten M.; Lambertz, Markus; Bever, G.S.; Rubidge, Bruce S.; de Queiroz, Kevin (2014). "Origin of the unique ventilatory apparatus of turtles" (PDF). Nature Communications. 5 (5211): 5211. Bibcode: 2014NatCo...5.5211L. doi: 10.1038/ncomms6211. PMID 25376734. Only three reptile species, including the yellow-bellied three-toed skink of Australia, actually combine both eggs and live birthing methods (the rarity suggests that evolution probably does not favor this in-between stage). The skink’s offspring begins life encased in an egg, the same as any other reptile. But as the embryo develops, the egg begins to thin out until all that’s left upon its birth is a small membrane. The main problem with this method is that the thin egg shells don’t contain enough calcium to nourish the offspring. The mothers appear to compensate for this by secreting calcium from the uterus so it can be absorbed by the developing embryo. The evidence suggests that the skink can choose to lay eggs a few weeks early if it seems like there’s less danger to the offspring. In harsher climates, the mother will keep the offspring insider her body for longer to protect them. When Sauropsida was used, it often had the same content or even the same definition as Reptilia. In 1988, Jacques Gauthier proposed a cladistic definition of Reptilia as a monophyletic node-based crown group containing turtles, lizards and snakes, crocodilians, and birds, their common ancestor and all its descendants. While Gauthier's definition was close to the modern consensus, nonetheless, it became considered inadequate because the actual relationship of turtles to other reptiles was not yet well understood at this time. [2] Major revisions since have included the reassignment of synapsids as non-reptiles, and classification of turtles as diapsids. [2] Other authors have used Sauropsida to include [3] [ clarification needed]

Most reptiles are insectivorous or carnivorous and have simple and comparatively short digestive tracts due to meat being fairly simple to break down and digest. Digestion is slower than in mammals, reflecting their lower resting metabolism and their inability to divide and masticate their food. [105] Their poikilotherm metabolism has very low energy requirements, allowing large reptiles like crocodiles and large constrictors to live from a single large meal for months, digesting it slowly. [78] Modern non-avian reptiles exhibit some form of cold-bloodedness (i.e. some mix of poikilothermy, ectothermy, and bradymetabolism) so that they have limited physiological means of keeping the body temperature constant and often rely on external sources of heat. Due to a less stable core temperature than birds and mammals, reptilian biochemistry requires enzymes capable of maintaining efficiency over a greater range of temperatures than in the case for warm-blooded animals. The optimum body temperature range varies with species, but is typically below that of warm-blooded animals; for many lizards, it falls in the 24°–35°C (75°–95°F) range, [72] while extreme heat-adapted species, like the American desert iguana Dipsosaurus dorsalis, can have optimal physiological temperatures in the mammalian range, between 35° and 40°C (95° and 104°F). [73] While the optimum temperature is often encountered when the animal is active, the low basal metabolism makes body temperature drop rapidly when the animal is inactive. Scales do not play an important role in distinguishing between the families but are important at generic and specific level. There is an elaborate scheme of nomenclature of scales. Scales patterns, by way of scale surface or texture, pattern and colouration and the division of the anal plate, in combination with other morphological characteristics, are the principal means of classifying snakes down to species level. [26] Parthenogenetic species are suspected to occur among chameleons, agamids, xantusiids, and typhlopids. Werneburg, Ingmar; Sánchez-Villagra, Marcelo R. (23 April 2009). "Timing of organogenesis support[s] basal position of turtles in the amniote tree of life". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 9: 82. doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-9-82. ISSN 2730-7182. PMC 2679012. PMID 19389226. article82.

What are reptiles?

There is no simple way of differentiating a venomous snake from a non-venomous one merely by using a scale character. Finding out whether a snake is venomous or not is correctly done by identification of the species of a snake with the help of experts, [31] :190 or in their absence, close examination of the snake and using authoritative references on the snakes of the particular geographical region to identify it. Scale patterns help to indicate the species and from the references, it can be verified if the snake species is known to be venomous or not.