Order in Space: A Design Source Book

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Bardan, Roxana (2022-10-11). "NASA Confirms DART Mission Impact Changed Asteroid's Motion in Space". NASA . Retrieved 2023-02-02. The Sun is a population I star; it has a higher abundance of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium (" metals" in astronomical parlance) than the older population II stars. [85] Elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were formed in the cores of ancient and exploding stars, so the first generation of stars had to die before the universe could be enriched with these atoms. The oldest stars contain few metals, whereas stars born later have more. This higher metallicity is thought to have been crucial to the Sun's development of a planetary system because the planets form from the accretion of "metals". [86] Inner Solar System Overview of the Inner Solar System up to the Jovian System Inner Solar System". NASA Science: Share the Science. Archived from the original on 10 April 2022 . Retrieved 2 April 2022.

Zimmer, Carl (3 October 2013). "Earth's Oxygen: A Mystery Easy to Take for Granted". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 October 2013 . Retrieved 3 October 2013. Zellik, Michael (2002). Astronomy: The Evolving Universe (9thed.). Cambridge University Press. p.240. ISBN 978-0-521-80090-7. OCLC 223304585. The astronomical unit [AU] (150,000,000km; 93,000,000mi) would be the distance from the Earth to the Sun if the planet's orbit were perfectly circular. [54] For comparison, the radius of the Sun is 0.0047AU (700,000km; 400,000mi). [55] Thus, the Sun occupies 0.00001% (10 −5%) of the volume of a sphere with a radius the size of Earth's orbit, whereas Earth's volume is roughly one millionth (10 −6) that of the Sun. Jupiter, the largest planet, is 5.2 astronomical units (780,000,000km; 480,000,000mi) from the Sun and has a radius of 71,000km (0.00047AU; 44,000mi), whereas the most distant planet, Neptune, is 30AU (4.5 ×10 9km; 2.8 ×10 9mi) from the Sun. [48] [56]

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Besides Pluto, astronomers generally agree that at least four other Kuiper belt objects are dwarf planets, [157] though there is some doubt for Orcus, [164] and additional bodies have also been proposed: [165] cos ⁡ ψ = cos ⁡ ( β g ) cos ⁡ ( β e ) cos ⁡ ( α g − α e ) + sin ⁡ ( β g ) sin ⁡ ( β e ) {\displaystyle \cos \psi =\cos(\beta _{g})\cos(\beta _{e})\cos(\alpha _{g}-\alpha _{e})+\sin(\beta _{g})\sin(\beta _{e})} Yi, Sukyoung; Demarque, Pierre; Kim, Yong-Cheol; Lee, Young-Wook; Ree, Chang H.; Lejeune, Thibault; Barnes, Sydney (2001). "Toward Better Age Estimates for Stellar Populations: The Y 2 Isochrones for Solar Mixture". Astrophysical Journal Supplement. 136 (2): 417–437. arXiv: astro-ph/0104292. Bibcode: 2001ApJS..136..417Y. doi: 10.1086/321795. S2CID 118940644. Perlerin, Vincent (26 September 2017). "Definitions of terms in meteor astronomy (IAU)". International Meteor Organization. Archived from the original on 23 January 2018 . Retrieved 10 April 2022. Weissman, Paul Robert; Johnson, Torrence V. (2007). Encyclopedia of the solar system. Academic Press. p. 615. ISBN 978-0-12-088589-3.

Ottewell, Guy (1989). "The Thousand-Yard Model: or, Earth as a Peppercorn". NOAO Educational Outreach Office. Archived from the original on 10 July 2016 . Retrieved 10 May 2012.a b c d Podolak, M.; Podolak, J. I.; Marley, M. S. (February 2000). "Further investigations of random models of Uranus and Neptune". Planetary and Space Science. 48 (2–3): 143–151. Bibcode: 2000P&SS...48..143P. doi: 10.1016/S0032-0633(99)00088-4. Archived from the original on 21 December 2019 . Retrieved 25 August 2019. Dyches, Preston; Chou, Felcia (7 April 2015). "The Solar System and Beyond is Awash in Water". NASA . Retrieved 8 April 2015. Williams, David R. (7 September 2006). "Saturn Fact Sheet". NASA. Archived from the original on 4 August 2011 . Retrieved 31 July 2007.

Pallas (2.77AU from the Sun) and Vesta (2.36AU from the Sun) are the largest asteroids in the asteroid belt, after Ceres. They are the other two protoplanets that survive more or less intact. At about 520km (320mi) in diameter, they were large enough to have developed planetary geology in the past, but both have suffered large impacts and been battered out of being round. [121] [122] [123] Fragments from impacts upon these two bodies survive elsewhere in the asteroid belt, as the Pallas family and Vesta family. Both were considered planets upon their discoveries in 1802 and 1807 respectively, and like Ceres, eventually considered minor planets with the discovery of more asteroids. Some authors today have begun to consider Pallas and Vesta as planets again, along with Ceres, under geophysical definitions of the term. [5] Asteroid groups Jupiter trojans are located in either of Jupiter's L 4 or L 5 points (gravitationally stable regions leading and trailing a planet in its orbit); the term trojan is also used for small bodies in any other planetary or satellite Lagrange point. Hilda asteroids are in a 2:3 resonance with Jupiter; that is, they go around the Sun three times for every two Jupiter orbits. [126] The inner Solar System contains near-Earth asteroids, many of which cross the orbits of the inner planets. [127] Some of them are potentially hazardous objects. [128] Outer Solar System Plot of objects around the Kuiper belt and other asteroid populations, the J, S, U and N denotes Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune a b "Latest Published Data". The International Astronomical Union Minor Planet Center. Archived from the original on 5 March 2019 . Retrieved 14 August 2023. Timeline of spaceflight – Chronological list of events in spaceflight broken down as a separate article for each year The Solar System lies well outside the star-crowded environs of the Galactic Center. Near the center, gravitational tugs from nearby stars could perturb bodies in the Oort cloud and send many comets into the inner Solar System, producing collisions with potentially catastrophic implications for life on Earth. The intense radiation of the Galactic Center could also interfere with the development of complex life. [232] Stellar flybys that pass within 0.8 light-years of the Sun occur roughly once every 100,000years. The closest well-measured approach was Scholz's Star, which approached to 52 +23Standish, E. M. (April 2005). "The Astronomical Unit now". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union. 2004: 163–179. Bibcode: 2005tvnv.conf..163S. doi: 10.1017/S1743921305001365. S2CID 55944238. Chronology of Space Exploration archive of important space exploration missions and events, including future planned and proposed endeavors

Bouvier, A.; Wadhwa, M. (2010). "The age of the Solar System redefined by the oldest Pb–Pb age of a meteoritic inclusion". Nature Geoscience. 3 (9): 637–641. Bibcode: 2010NatGe...3..637B. doi: 10.1038/NGEO941. S2CID 56092512. Stofan, E. R.; Elachi, C.; Lunine, Jonathan I.; Lorenz, R. D.; Stiles, B.; Mitchell, K. L.; Ostro, S.; Soderblom, L.; etal. (2007). "The lakes of Titan". Nature. 445 (1): 61–64. Bibcode: 2007Natur.445...61S. doi: 10.1038/nature05438. PMID 17203056. S2CID 4370622. a b c d e f Williams, David (27 December 2021). "Planetary Fact Sheet - Metric". NASA Goddard Space Flight Center . Retrieved 11 December 2022. ESA Science & Technology - A brief introduction to exoplanets". sci.esa.int . Retrieved 2023-02-04. Short-period comets have orbits lasting less than two hundred years. Long-period comets have orbits lasting thousands of years. Short-period comets are thought to originate in the Kuiper belt, whereas long-period comets, such as Hale–Bopp, are thought to originate in the Oort cloud. Many comet groups, such as the Kreutz sungrazers, formed from the breakup of a single parent. [152] Some comets with hyperbolic orbits may originate outside the Solar System, but determining their precise orbits is difficult. [153] Old comets whose volatiles have mostly been driven out by solar warming are often categorised as asteroids. [154] Trans-Neptunian region Distribution and size of trans-Neptunian objects. The horizontal axis stand for the semi-major axis of the body, the vertical axis stands for the inclination of the orbit, and the size of the circle stands for the relative size of the object. Size comparison of some large TNOs with Earth: Pluto and its moons, Eris, Makemake, Haumea, Sedna, Gonggong, Quaoar, Orcus, Salacia, and 2002 MS 4.If the Sun–Neptune distance is scaled to 100 metres (330ft), then the Sun would be about 3cm (1.2in) in diameter (roughly two-thirds the diameter of a golf ball), the giant planets would be all smaller than about 3mm (0.12in), and Earth's diameter along with that of the other terrestrial planets would be smaller than a flea (0.3mm or 0.012in) at this scale. [63] Interplanetary environment The zodiacal light, caused by interplanetary dust Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes – A comprehensive list of artificial satellites and space probes. Lecar, Myron; Franklin, Fred A.; Holman, Matthew J.; Murray, Norman J. (2001). "Chaos in the Solar System". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 39: 581–631. arXiv: astro-ph/0111600. Bibcode: 2001ARA&A..39..581L. doi: 10.1146/annurev.astro.39.1.581. S2CID 55949289.