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Karban, R., Huntzinger, M. & McCall, A. C. The specificity of eavesdropping on sagebrush by other plants. Ecology 85, 1845–1852 (2004).
In our study, P. utilis ethyl acetate leaf extract was found to be most prominent against S. epidermis (ZOI-13.83 mm). However, this extract was insensitive against S. aureus. Similarly, methanolic leaf extract was most prominent against S. aureus (ZOI-12.33 mm). Furthermore, the methanolic seed extract was most sensitive against K. pneumoniae (ZOI-11.66 mm) and E. coli (ZOI-9.0 mm). Also, the methanolic leaf extract was reported to be most sensitive against both gram-positive strains. Interestingly, the methanolic seed extract was successful in suppressing the growth of gram-negative as well as gram-positive bacterial strains. Our finding about the broad-spectrum activity of P. utilis seed extract was also supported by previous research conducted in China [ 24]. Between the two gram-positive bacteria, S. epidermidis was more sensitive than S. aureus, whereas K. pneumoniae was more sensitive than E. coli in the case of gram-negative bacteria. In summary, leaf extracts were more effective against gram-positive bacteria and seed extracts were more sensitive towards gram-negative bacteria. Previously published research studies about phytochemical analysis of P. utilis seed and leaf have shown that both parts are rich in diverse classes of polyphenols, flavonoids, and their glycosidic forms [ 26, 27]. However, a unique type of hydroxylnitrile-glucoside compound (prinsepicyanosides A- E) has been identified in P. utilis seed extract. These unique classes of bioactive compounds have shown excellent inhibitory effects against several gram-negative bacteria such as Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Salmonella gallinarum, Vibrio cholera, and Vibrio parahaemolyticus [ 40]. This might be the possible reason for the better inhibitory effect of P. utilis seed extract on gram-negative bacterial strains in our study. Figure S1 shows the zone of inhibition formed by ethyl acetate leaf extract (Figure S1A) and methanolic leaf extract (Figure S1B) against S. epidermidis. Kuai, J.; Liu, Z.; Wang, Y.; Meng, Y.; Chen, B.; Zhao, W.; Zhou, Z.; Oosterhuis, D.M. Waterlogging during flowering and boll forming stages affects sucrose metabolism in the leaves subtending the cotton boll and its relationship with boll weight. Plant Sci. 2014, 223, 79–98. [ Google Scholar] [ CrossRef] [ PubMed]
Arimura, G. et al. Herbivory-induced volatiles elicit defence genes in lima bean leaves. Nature 406, 512–515 (2000). set out a leaf and seed discovery zone. Lay out a selection of leaves and seeds along with the cards and invite your children to match them up. You can provide magnifying glasses so your children can take a close-up look at the leaves and seeds. R Core Team, R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria, < www.Rproject.org> (2014). Samarah, N.; Alqudah, A.; Amayreh, J.; McAndrews, G. The effect of late-terminal drought stress on yield components of four barley cultivars. J. Agron. Crop Sci. 2009, 195, 427–441. [ Google Scholar] [ CrossRef] The ultimate development of the epigeal habit is represented by a few plants, mostly in the family Gesneriaceae in which the cotyledon persists for a lifetime. Such a plant is Streptocarpus wendlandii of South Africa in which one cotyledon grows to be up to 75 centimeters (2.5 feet) in length and up to 61cm (two feet) in width (the largest cotyledon of any dicot, [6] and exceeded only by Lodoicea). Adventitious flower clusters form along the midrib of the cotyledon. [7] The second cotyledon is much smaller and ephemeral. [ citation needed]
For every extract, 100 mg was taken accurately in a small vial and dissolved homogeneously in 1 mL of DMSO, followed by storage of samples until use. The concentration of the extract solution was prepared in such a way that each 10 μL of sample solution carried 1 mg of extract. About 5 mm diameter of filter paper disc was prepared by using Whatman’s No. 1 filter paper and sterilized at 115°C for up to 15 minutes. [ 33– 36]. 2.11.2. Preparation of Muller Hinton Agar (MHA) Media and Bacterial Strains Sub-Culturing Phytochemical screening of all the extracts was carried out to investigate the presence of diverse bioactive secondary metabolites, namely, polyphenols, alkaloids, phytosterols, cardiac glycosides, saponin, anthraquinone, resin, tannin, flavonoid, and terpenoids, with the help of different standard methods described in literature [ 28– 30]. The presence was denoted by +sign and absence was denoted by −sign. 2.7. Determination of Total Phenolic Content Baraloto, C.; Forget, P.-M. (2007), "Seed size, seedling morphology, and response to deep shade and damage in neotropical rain forest trees", American Journal of Botany, 94 (6): 901–11, doi: 10.3732/ajb.94.6.901, PMID 21636459, S2CID 24272337 Zanella, M.; Borghi, G.L.; Pirone, C.; Thalmann, M.; Pazmino, D.; Costa, A.; Santelia, D.; Trost, P.; Sparla, F. β-amylase 1 (BAM1) degrades transitory starch to sustain proline biosynthesis during drought stress. J. Exp. Bot. 2016, 67, 1819–1826. [ Google Scholar] [ CrossRef] [ PubMed][ Green Version] Xu, W.; Cui, K.; Xu, A.; Nie, L.; Huang, J.; Peng, S. Drought stress condition increases root to shoot ratio via alteration of carbohydrate partitioning and enzymatic activity in rice seedlings. Acta Physiol. Plant 2015, 37, 9. [ Google Scholar] [ CrossRef]The cotyledon of grasses and many other monocotyledons is a highly modified leaf composed of a scutellum and a coleoptile. The scutellum is a tissue within the seed that is specialized to absorb stored food from the adjacent endosperm. The coleoptile is a protective cap that covers the plumule (precursor to the stem and leaves of the plant). According to a study conducted by a researcher from China, P. utilis ethyl acetate seed extract was further fractionated by using normal phase column chromatography, to achieve seven different fractions. The antibacterial effect of each fraction was tested against S. aureus and E. coli by using the disc diffusion method. Among seven different fractions, fraction 1 (0.2 mg per disc) revealed measurable ZOI against S. aureus (14.16 mm) and E. coli (11.5 mm). The same fraction showed the lowest MIC and MBC values of 0.625 mg/mL and 2.5 mg/mL, respectively, against S. aureus whereas in the case of E. coli, the lowest MIIC and MBC values of 2.5 mg/mL and 5.0 mg/mL, respectively, were observed [ 24]. The better MIC and MBC values shown in that research in comparison to our study must be due to the examination of fractionated samples in that study. In another study, an alkaloid isolated from P. utilis has shown MIC values of 0.08 mg/mL and 0.625 mg/mL, against S. aureus and E. coli, respectively, whereas its MBC values against S. aureus and E. coli were 0.16 mg/mL and 1.25 mg/mL, respectively [ 47]. Although extensive studies on bioactive antimicrobial phytochemicals of P. utilis remain unexplored yet, few investigations have documented the occurrence of various potent bioactive compounds such as p-Coumaric acid, rutin, catechin, Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside, Quercetin-3-O-glucoside, Isorhamnetin-3-O-glucoside, Isoschaftoside, etc. [ 27]. Besides that, various bioactive terpenoids such as epiutililactone, utililactone, 2 α-O-trans [ 1]p-coumaroyl-3 β, 19 α-dihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid, 2 α-O-cis-p-coumaroyl-3 β, 19 α-dihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid, and coumarin derivatives have been reported from this plant [ 22, 25]. Thus, these diverse bioactive components might be responsible for the significant antibacterial effect of P. utilis leaf and seed extract. 4. Conclusion
Ayre, B.G. Membrane-transport systems for sucrose in relation to whole-plant carbon partitioning. Mol. Plant 2011, 4, 377–394. [ Google Scholar] [ CrossRef][ Green Version] Ruan, Y.L. Sucrose metabolism: Gateway to diverse carbon use and sugar signaling. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 2014, 65, 33–67. [ Google Scholar] [ CrossRef] [ PubMed] In addition, the cytotoxic activity of methanol extracts from different parts of five Arthemisia species was evaluated by Gordanian et al. 12. A. absinthium was found to have a greater cytotoxic effect on MCF-7 cells with a 50% inhibitory concentration (IC 50) value of 221.5 µg/mL. They showed that a flower extract of A. absinthium was more cytotoxic than those of leaf, stem, and root extracts. Similarly, we found that seed extracts at less than 0.5 mg/mL concentrations were more effective with regards cytotoxicity on A-549 cells compared with that of leaf extracts, especially on day 1 and day 2 ( Figure 2a, b). In fact, flower and leaf extracts of some Artemisia species contain rich sources of artemisinin, a sesquiterpene lactone Mannan et al. 24, and artemisinin caused in vitro and in vivo anticancer activities in a previous study. 25 Andersen, M.N.; Asch, F.; Wu, Y.; Jensen, C.R.; Næsted, H.; Mogensen, V.O.; Koch, K.E. Soluble invertase expression is an early target of drought stress during the critical, abortion-sensitive phase of young ovary development in maize. Plant Physiol. 2002, 130, 591–604. [ Google Scholar] [ CrossRef][ Green Version]We conducted field experiments over 3 years (2012, 2013, and 2015) and showed that exposing young soybean plants to cut goldenrod volatiles in the early growing period (July) only three times over 2–3 weeks significantly reduced the damage caused by folivores until September and by seed predators (except for 2012) until nearly November. Thus, we concluded that volatiles from cut goldenrods positively affected the defense levels of early stage soybean leaves and seeds. The effects of the exposure lasted until the seed-production stage. This was the first case study in which plant–plant communication resulted in a decrease in the damage level to leaves and seeds.
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